nutrients.md (23752B)
1 # Micronutrients 2 3 As discussed in chapters 4 and 5 of the Book: Change Your Diet Change Your Mind 4 by Georgia Ede , micronutrients are indispensable to the building and burning 5 pathways that make up the miracle of brain metabolism. The goal of this resource 6 is to bring this list of players to life by describing the fascinating tasks 7 each nutrient performs, paying special attention to the contributions each one 8 makes to maintaining mental health. 9 10 **Try not to think of this as a list of supplements—these are essential 11 ingredients we are supposed to be able to obtain from our diets.** We are best 12 adapted to absorbing, utilizing, and achieving proper balance of these nutrients 13 when we consume them in whole foods, not as isolated, concentrated extracts. 14 15 ## Vitamin A (Retinol and related compounds) 16 17 True vitamin A compounds (not to be confused with beta-carotene and similar 18 compounds found in carrots and certain other colorful plant foods) belong to a 19 family of fat-soluble hormones best known for their role in eye health, 20 specifically for making both night vision and color perception possible. Less 21 commonly known is that vitamin A influences the genes involved in the growth and 22 development of all cells, and therefore is crucial to the development and 23 maintenance of the entire brain. 24 25 Learning and memory also rely heavily on vitamin A to help connect neurons in 26 new patterns to solidify knowledge. Vitamin A deficiency in early life increases 27 the risk for autism, and problems with vitamin A signaling may play a role in 28 the development of schizophrenia. Vitamin A signaling can decline with age, 29 contributing to cognitive deficits later in life. 30 31 > [!info] Source Code: 32 > - **Preformed vitamin A (retinol):** liver (beef, lamb, poultry, cod); fish liver oils; egg yolks; vitamin A–containing dairy (whole milk, butter, cream, cheese as consumed in traditional diets); fatty fish (herring, mackerel, salmon, sardines). 33 > - **Provitamin A carotenoids (β-carotene and related):** convert to vitamin A with variable efficiency—sweet potato; carrot; pumpkin; winter squash; dark leafy greens (kale, spinach, collards); red peppers; mango; apricot; cantaloupe (whole fruit, not juice-only patterns). 34 35 ## The Busy B's 36 37 Even though they look nothing alike and have unique responsibilities, the B 38 vitamins are often lumped together and referred to as "B complex," because they 39 all serve as coenzymes (enzyme assistants) that help cells extract energy from 40 food and assemble vital molecules, so they are indispensable to multiple burning 41 and building pathways. 42 43 We must consume foods rich in B vitamins regularly because most of them can't be 44 stored in our tissues, with the notable exception of vitamin B12, which we store 45 in the liver. Since the brain is a high-energy organ, even brief deficiency of a 46 single member of the B vitamin family can slow the brain's machinery and lead to 47 vague, nonspecific psychiatric symptoms, such as fatigue, apathy, or insomnia. 48 49 ### Vitamin B1 (Thiamine) 50 51 Vitamin B1 helps make and break the bonds that hold molecules together. It plays 52 essential roles in both glycolysis (Engine G) and the citric acid cycle (part of 53 Engine M), and connects the two pathways by converting pyruvate to acetyl CoA. 54 It also helps the pentose phosphate pathway to make DNA and RNA, and assists in 55 the construction of the neurotransmitters acetylcholine, glutamate, and GABA. 56 Since glucose processing requires thiamine, diets high in carbohydrate increase 57 thiamine requirements. Deficiency remains widespread in parts of the world that 58 rely heavily on starchy staples like rice and have poor access to thiamine-rich 59 protein sources. 60 61 > [!info] Source Code: 62 > - Pork (loin, ham); beef and lamb muscle meat; poultry; fish (especially tuna, salmon); whole-grain and enriched cereals and breads; legumes (black beans, navy beans, lentils); nuts and seeds (sunflower seeds, macadamia); peas and soy foods. 63 64 ### Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin) 65 66 Vitamin B2 is an integral part of FAD, which carries electrons to the electron 67 transport chain. Riboflavin helps build antioxidants and synthesize vitamin B3, 68 and is also required to activate vitamins B6 and B9. 69 70 > [!info] Source Code: 71 > - Organ meats (liver, kidney); dairy milk and yogurt; eggs; lean beef; mushrooms (portobello, white button); almonds; spinach; whole grains; poultry (dark meat somewhat richer than white). 72 73 ### Vitamin B3 (Niacin) 74 75 Vitamin B3 is an integral part of NAD, which is used by hundreds of enzymes to 76 help transfer electrons between molecules. Severe, advanced niacin deficiency 77 causes pellagra, a disease which can lead to depression, psychosis, delirium, 78 and dementia. 79 80 > [!info] Source Code: 81 > - Poultry (chicken, turkey); beef; pork; fish (tuna, salmon); peanuts and peanut butter; mushrooms (portobello, crimini); whole grains; legumes; potatoes; fortified/enriched grains where culturally used; seeds (sesame, sunflower). 82 83 ### Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic acid) 84 85 Vitamin B5 is an integral part of CoA (coenzyme A), which changes the shape of 86 large molecules to help them undergo chemical reactions more easily. Vitamin B5 87 participates widely in metabolism but is particularly important to the assembly 88 of components needed for growth and is required to activate folate (vitamin B9). 89 90 > [!info] Source Code: 91 > - Animal foods across the board (beef, poultry, pork, organ meats, eggs, fish); whole grains; shiitake and other mushrooms; avocado; sweet potato; broccoli; sunflower seeds; peanuts; dairy milk and yogurt. 92 93 ### Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine) 94 95 Vitamin B6 is used by dozens of enzymes to help transfer carbon building blocks 96 between molecules. Vitamin B6 is required for gluconeogenesis, amino acid 97 processing, and to make vitamin B3, DNA, RNA, serotonin, dopamine, 98 norepinephrine, and GABA. 99 100 > [!info] Source Code: 101 > - Chickpeas and other legumes; fish (tuna, salmon); poultry; potatoes (starchy); bananas; organ meats; lean beef; fortified cereals where used; nuts (pistachio); whole grains; sunflower seeds; dark leafy greens. 102 103 ### Vitamin B7 (Biotin) 104 105 Vitamin B7 helps add carbon building blocks to molecules, regulates gene 106 activity, and supports gluconeogenesis, the production of blood glucose. 107 108 > [!info] Source Code: 109 > - Egg yolks; beef liver; salmon; pork; sunflower seeds; sweet potato; almonds; spinach and other leafy greens; whole grains; legumes; cauliflower; cheese (modest amounts vary by type). 110 111 ### Vitamin B9 (Folate) 112 113 Vitamin B9 supplies the carbon building blocks needed to help vitamin B12 make 114 DNA, myelin, and certain neurotransmitters including serotonin, dopamine, and 115 norepinephrine. Cells can't multiply without DNA, so folate requirements are 116 much higher in times of rapid growth and development (such as pregnancy), and in 117 parts of the body that replenish cells frequently, such as the bone marrow where 118 red blood cells are produced. This is why folate deficiency can cause anemia 119 (low red blood cell count) and neural tube defects such as spina bifida. 120 121 Flour and cereal fortification programs in many countries have helped prevent 122 deficiencies, but these use synthetic folic acid rather than the natural folate 123 found in foods. Best animal food source is liver; good plant sources include 124 spinach, asparagus, and avocado. 125 126 > [!info] Source Code: 127 > - Liver (beef, lamb, poultry); edamame and mature soybeans; lentils, black beans, kidney beans, chickpeas; asparagus, Brussels sprouts, broccoli; spinach, romaine, mustard greens; avocado; citrus (orange), strawberries; beets; sunflower seeds; peanuts; wheat germ; quinoa and whole wheat when part of a mixed diet (concentrations vary with processing). 128 129 ### Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin) 130 131 Whereas most B vitamins participate in dozens to hundreds of metabolic 132 reactions, B12 serves only two enzymes, so we need very little B12 and it can 133 take years to deplete our reserves. The first enzyme helps vitamin B9 (folate) 134 move carbon building blocks between molecules to make neurotransmitters and DNA 135 (which is why B12 deficiency, like folate deficiency, can cause anemia), and the 136 other enzyme is used to build myelin. 137 138 Vitamin B12 deficiency is not uncommon even in affluent countries, partly 139 because so many medications and health conditions can interfere with B12 140 absorption, and partly because diets low in animal foods are becoming more 141 prevalent. B12 deficiency can lead to a variety of psychiatric symptoms, 142 including depression, psychosis, memory problems, and personality changes. 143 144 B12 is only found in animal foods; good sources include shellfish, meat, fish, 145 poultry, eggs, and low-fat dairy products. 146 147 > [!info] Source Code: 148 > - **Very high (examples):** clams; mussels; oysters; liver (beef, lamb, veal); sardines and other small fatty fish; crab and other shellfish. 149 > - **Commonly useful sources:** salmon, trout, tuna; beef and lamb; poultry; eggs (especially whole eggs); milk, yogurt, and cheese (content varies). **Note:** reliable plant-only B12 generally requires intentional microbial sources (e.g., certain fermented foods or fortified foods), not ordinary unwashed produce alone. 150 151 ## Vitamin C (L-ascorbic acid) 152 153 Vitamin C (L-ascorbic acid) is a coenzyme required to build collagen (a 154 component of the blood-brain barrier), and helps regulate the production of 155 myelin, which insulates brain circuits. 156 157 > [!info] Source Code: 158 > - Citrus (oranges, grapefruit, lemon, lime); kiwifruit; strawberries, raspberries; papaya; guava; bell peppers (especially red); broccoli; Brussels sprouts; cauliflower; tomatoes; potatoes (white and sweet); cantaloupe; cabbage; kohlrabi; fresh herbs like parsley. 159 160 ## Vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol) 161 162 Strictly speaking, vitamin D3 is not essential in the diet because your skin can 163 produce it if exposed to enough sunlight. Vitamin D is a fat-soluble hormone 164 that influences brain development, calcium balance, antioxidant defenses, and 165 neuroplasticity—the creation of new neuron networks in response to new 166 experiences, which is key to learning and memory. Vitamin D deficiency is very 167 common, particularly in people with insulin resistance, and deficiency during 168 pregnancy increases risk for developmental and neuropsychiatric complications in 169 offspring. 170 171 > [!info] Source Code: 172 > - **D3 in whole foods (typically modest unless eaten often):** fatty fish and fish roe (salmon, mackerel, herring, sardines, tuna); beef liver; egg yolks; pork (small contributions). 173 > - **UV-exposed mushrooms** can provide vitamin D2 (ergocalciferol), not D3, but still contribute to vitamin D status depending on exposure and species. 174 > - **Primary non-food source for many people:** sensible sunlight exposure enabling cutaneous synthesis of D3. 175 176 ## Vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol) 177 178 Vitamin E helps protect unsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs and PUFAs) from oxidative 179 damage, helps maintain the shape of cell membranes, and regulates genes involved 180 in protecting cell membranes. 181 182 > [!info] Source Code: 183 > - Wheat germ; sunflower seeds and almonds; hazelnuts; peanuts; avocado; spinach; Swiss chard; beet greens; broccoli; mango; kiwi; olives; whole grains (varies); vegetable oils are concentrated sources in modern diets but are not “whole foods” in the strict sense. 184 185 ## Vitamin K1 186 187 Vitamin K1 helps add carbon groups to clotting proteins, allowing them to bind 188 calcium and initiate the “coagulation cascade” to prevent uncontrolled bleeding. 189 190 > [!info] Source Code: 191 > - Dark leafy greens (kale, spinach, collards, mustard greens, turnip greens, Swiss chard); broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cabbage; parsley; asparagus; prunes; soybean and canola oils as used in food prep (concentrated). 192 193 ## Vitamin K2 194 195 Vitamin K2 is a much-overlooked fat-soluble hormone that activates proteins 196 involved in brain cell growth and survival and participates in the production of 197 vital membrane fats (sphingolipids), including those needed to make myelin. 198 Several different forms of K2 exist, but 98 percent of the K2 in the human brain 199 exists in a form called MK-4. Best dietary sources are liver and egg yolks. 200 201 > [!info] Source Code: 202 > - **MK-4–rich patterns:** liver (chicken, goose, beef); egg yolks; butter and full-fat dairy from pasture-raised/forage-fed animals (variable with feeding). 203 > - **Longer-chain menaquinones (e.g., MK-7):** natto (fermented soy); certain aged cheeses; some fermented dairy and animal products (microbial K2 varies). 204 205 ## Calcium 206 207 Like a scout, calcium carries high-priority messages about energy demands, 208 neurotransmitter supply, and cell health from the outer reaches of the neuron to 209 deep inside the mitochondria and nucleus (the cell’s command center), so they 210 can rapidly adapt to changing circumstances. Glutamate and GABA receptors use 211 calcium, and calcium signaling is critical for learning and memory 212 (neuroplasticity), neurotransmitter release, and even cell survival. If the cell 213 is in dire straits due to viral infection, lack of oxygen, or other serious 214 threats, large amounts of calcium rush in, initiating the cell’s suicide program 215 (apoptosis). 216 217 > [!info] Source Code: 218 > - Dairy (milk, yogurt, kefir), cheese; canned sardines and salmon with bones; anchovies; tofu set with calcium salts; sesame seeds and tahini; almonds; white beans and other legumes; leafy greens (collard, kale, bok choy—bioavailability varies with oxalate); figs; blackstrap molasses (used sparingly); some mineral waters (label-dependent). 219 220 ## Chloride 221 222 Chloride is the dominant negatively charged ion in the brain. It helps regulate 223 fluid balance and cell volume and cooperates with sodium to maintain neurons’ 224 readiness to fire. 225 226 > [!info] Source Code: 227 > - Chloride is supplied mainly as **salt (sodium chloride)** in real-world diets; whole-food contributors include seaweed, celery, tomatoes, olives, beets, shellfish, rye, and many preserved or brined whole foods where salt is intrinsic to preparation. 228 229 ## Choline 230 231 The vast majority of choline is used to make phosphatidylcholine, an essential 232 component of cell membranes. Choline is also used to build myelin, DNA 233 molecules, and the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Choline was only recognized 234 as an essential nutrient in 1998, so little is known about how deficiency 235 affects mental health, but early studies suggest choline deficiency may affect 236 attention and memory, perhaps because acetylcholine is so important to these 237 brain functions. Studies find that most people in the United States do not 238 consume adequate choline; best sources are red meat, liver, eggs, and fish roe. 239 240 > [!info] Source Code: 241 > - Egg yolks; beef, chicken, and cod liver; fish roe; muscle meats (beef, pork, chicken); wheat germ (for those who include grains); soybeans and roasted soy nuts; shiitake mushrooms; lima beans and other legumes; Brussels sprouts; long-simmered meat or poultry broth (connective tissue releases phospholipids). 242 243 ## Copper 244 245 The electron transport chain relies on copper to pull electrons through one of 246 its large enzyme complexes (cytochrome c oxidase) as it works to make ATP. The 247 enzyme that transforms dopamine into norepinephrine depends on copper as well. 248 249 > [!info] Source Code: 250 > - Liver (beef, calf, lamb); oysters and other shellfish; crab and lobster; shiitake mushrooms; dark chocolate/cacao (whole bean preparations); cashews, almonds, sesame; sunflower seeds; chickpeas; potatoes (with skin); whole grains and wheat germ. 251 252 ## Iodine 253 254 Iodine is an integral part of thyroid hormone, which is not only a major 255 orchestrator of brain development in early life but also supports healthy brain 256 metabolism throughout the lifespan. Iodine deficiency causes hypothyroidism (low 257 thyroid hormone activity); when this occurs during pregnancy, it can lead to 258 irreversible cognitive deficits in the developing baby. Iodine deficiency is 259 widespread, affecting up to two billion people, including in the United States 260 and Europe, and is a leading cause of preventable intellectual disabilities. In 261 adults, hypothyroidism can cause symptoms of depression such as apathy and 262 fatigue, and can even cause reversible dementia, likely due in part to sluggish 263 brain glucose metabolism. Best food sources are fish, shrimp, seaweed, and 264 iodized salt. 265 266 > [!info] Source Code: 267 > - **Rich marine patterns:** seaweed (kelp, nori, kombu—potency varies widely, excess possible); cod, haddock, pollock, tuna; shrimp, scallops; milk and yogurt (iodine varies with farm practices and season); eggs; **iodized salt** as a practical public-health vehicle where seafood intake is low; some coastal soils and produce (variable). 268 269 ## Iron 270 271 When we think of iron, we think of blood, but this mineral’s responsibilities 272 extend far beyond carrying oxygen to the brain in red blood cells. Iron is 273 gifted with the ability to exist in two different charged states, so it can give 274 and receive electrons easily. This special talent makes it indispensable to the 275 electron transport chain and many other pathways, including those used to 276 construct DNA, myelin, and the neurotransmitters serotonin, dopamine, and 277 norepinephrine. Iron deficiency is the most common nutrient deficiency in the 278 world, affecting more than 25 percent of the world’s population, most of whom 279 are pregnant women and very young children. Since iron is needed to build DNA 280 and myelin, iron deficiency during pregnancy can have irreversible effects on 281 intelligence, memory, and attention, and can increase risk for autism. Best 282 dietary sources are red meat, liver, mussels, and oysters. 283 284 > [!info] Source Code: 285 > - **Heme iron (generally well absorbed):** liver; beef and lamb; dark poultry meat; sardines; oysters, clams, mussels; venison and other game. 286 > - **Non-heme iron (absorption improved with vitamin C and careful food pairing):** lentils, chickpeas, white beans; tofu and tempeh; spinach and Swiss chard; pumpkin seeds; quinoa; blackstrap molasses (sparing use). 287 288 ## Magnesium 289 290 Magnesium’s compact size and strong positive charge give it magnetic properties 291 useful in hundreds of chemical reactions, helping to generate energy, build 292 proteins, and stabilize genes. Magnesium exists in balance with calcium and 293 zinc, which keeps their destructive influences in check. One of magnesium’s most 294 intriguing tasks is to sit stubbornly inside glutamate receptors (NMDA 295 receptors, to be exact), plugging them up and preventing positive ions from 296 entering the cell. Only when a strong electrical signal comes along will 297 magnesium pop out like a champagne cork and allow those ions to pour in so the 298 neuron can fire. NMDA receptors are particularly important for learning, memory, 299 and healthy circadian rhythm (sleep-wake patterns). 300 301 > [!info] Source Code: 302 > - Pumpkin, chia, and flax seeds; almonds and cashews; peanuts; spinach and Swiss chard; black beans, edamame, lima beans; quinoa; brown rice and whole wheat; avocado; yogurt and milk; banana; dark chocolate (cacao solids); mackerel and halibut (examples of fish contributing). 303 304 ## Manganese 305 306 The antioxidant enzyme superoxide dismutase, which shields mitochondria from 307 free-radical damage, contains manganese. The multipurpose enzyme glutamine 308 synthetase, which is used to manufacture glutamine, glutamate, and GABA, as well 309 as to detoxify glutamate and ammonia in the brain, also requires manganese. 310 311 > [!info] Source Code: 312 > - Whole grains (oat, brown rice, bulgur); mussels and clams; hazelnuts, pecans; chickpeas and soy; spinach and beet greens; black tea (beverage from leaf); pineapple; sweet potato. 313 314 ## Molybdenum 315 316 Only four enzymes in the body require molybdenum. These enzymes help prevent DNA 317 mutations and support healthy uric acid levels (which protects the brain against 318 oxidative stress). 319 320 > [!info] Source Code: 321 > - Legumes (lentils, black beans, split peas); whole grains (especially oats); peanuts and other nuts; leafy vegetables; potatoes (with skin); tomatoes; seeds (sunflower, sesame); liver (modest). 322 323 ## Phosphorus 324 325 Phosphorus is an essential component of cell membranes, DNA and RNA, ATP 326 molecules (the P stands for phosphate), and bone. It also participates in 327 multiple chemical reactions—including electron transfer in the electron 328 transport chain—and helps regulate the pH of the blood. 329 330 > [!info] Source Code: 331 > - Dairy (milk, cheese, yogurt); eggs; fish and shellfish; poultry; pork and beef muscle; lentils, chickpeas, soybeans; pumpkin seeds, sunflower seeds; quinoa; whole wheat, oatmeal; potatoes; tree nuts (almonds, cashews, walnuts—content varies). 332 333 ## Potassium 334 335 Potassium is the dominant positively charged ion inside neurons, with 336 concentrations maintained at roughly thirty times higher inside than outside to 337 help maintain neurons’ readiness to fire. The enzyme that releases energy from 338 ATP also requires potassium. 339 340 > [!info] Source Code: 341 > - White and sweet potatoes with skin; beet greens, spinach, Swiss chard; tomato products (paste, puree—whole-tomato based); oranges, orange juice (whole-fruit patterns preferred), bananas, cantaloupe, kiwi, apricots (dried unsweetened in moderation); avocado; white beans, lentils, soybeans; yogurt and milk; salmon, halibut, tuna; coconut water (natural). 342 343 ## Selenium 344 345 Several antioxidant enzymes contain selenium, including glutathione peroxidase, 346 which helps protect the brain against stress, including oxidative stress. 347 348 > [!info] Source Code: 349 > - **Brazil nuts (very high—portion control matters);** seafood (tuna, halibut, sardines, oysters); organ meats; pork, beef, turkey, chicken; sunflower seeds; shiitake and crimini mushrooms; brown rice and whole wheat; eggs; dairy milk and yogurt. 350 351 ## Sodium 352 353 Sodium is the dominant positively charged ion outside neurons, with 354 concentrations maintained at roughly ten times higher outside than inside to 355 help maintain neurons’ readiness to fire. 356 357 > [!info] Source Code: 358 > - Sodium occurs widely as **sodium chloride** and natural sodium in whole foods: celery, beets, carrots; milk and yogurt; shellfish; anchovies; pickles and fermented vegetables (salt-mediated); tomato juice; many cheeses and cured whole-meat preparations (traditional preservation). 359 360 ## Sulfur 361 362 Sulfur is an essential component of insulin and glutathione (one of the most 363 important antioxidants in the brain). It is also required to build two amino 364 acids (cysteine and methionine) and helps guide protein folding and numerous 365 metabolic pathways. 366 367 > [!info] Source Code: 368 > - **Sulfur mainly arrives as protein-bound amino acids and organosulfur compounds:** meats, poultry, fish, eggs; milk, yogurt, cheese; legumes (especially mature soy); alliums (onion, garlic, leek, shallot); crucifers (broccoli, cauliflower, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, kale); mustard family plants. 369 370 ## Zinc 371 372 Zinc allows certain proteins to fold into their correct shapes and assists 373 certain enzymes in their catalytic duties. Zinc is required for healthy immune 374 system function and neurotransmitter activity. One of zinc’s unique 375 responsibilities is to burst out of tiny storage compartments into the synapse 376 alongside glutamate (a stimulating neurotransmitter) to buffer its signal. Zinc 377 also behaves as a natural dopamine reuptake inhibitor, prolonging dopamine 378 signaling in the synapse. Zinc ripens young BDNF (brain-derived growth factor) 379 molecules to maturity so they may fertilize developing neurons, supporting the 380 process of neuroplasticity. Zinc is also central to the process of autophagy; 381 when mitochondria or other critical cell components are damaged beyond repair 382 and need to be destroyed, zinc helps calcium flip the kill switch, partly by 383 intentionally generating oxygen free radicals to attack them from within and 384 finish them off. 385 386 > [!info] Source Code: 387 > - Oysters (very high); crab, lobster; beef and lamb; pumpkin seeds, hemp seeds; cashews, almonds; chickpeas, lentils, black beans; yogurt, cheese; oats, quinoa; pork and dark poultry meat; eggs.